Abstract

Topic: Predator-prey interactions

Should I Stay or Should I Go? Moose behavioural responses to hunting risk and hunting dogs

Giorgia Ausilio¹, Håkan Sand¹, Camilla Wikenros¹, Johan Månsson¹, Barbara Zimmermann²

Department of Ecology, Grimsö Research Station, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Grimsö, Riddarhyttan, Sweden
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, University of Inland Norway, Norway

Predator-prey interactions drive the evolution of anti-predator behaviors, shaping how prey species respond to threats. Ungulates, such as moose (Alces alces), exhibit a range of escape responses, including fight-or-flight decisions, which are influenced by environmental, anthropogenic, and situational factors. In human-dominated landscapes, where hunting often surpasses natural predation as a selective force, understanding these responses is essential. In Sweden, hunting with baying dogs is a common practice, and moose typically respond by either (a) standing at bay or (b) fleeing. Using data from over 10,000 moose hunting tests conducted between 2017 and 2022 across Sweden’s latitudinal gradient, we examined the factors influencing whether moose stand at bay or flee when confronted by hunting dogs. We applied a Bayesian logistic regression framework to assess the effects of environmental conditions, predator presence (wolves, bears), anthropogenic factors (hunting pressure), and moose reproductive status on the probability of moose standing at bay for hunting dogs. Our results indicate that weaker winds and shallow snow increase the likelihood of moose standing at bay. Higher wolf densities and hunting pressure had weak negative effects on this probability, whereas high bear density strongly decreased the likelihood of moose standing at bay. Among reproductive classes, females with calves were most likely to stand at bay, followed by single females and bulls. Based on previous literature, we hypothesize that moose generalize and amplify their fleeing responses when exposed to multiple predator types, particularly when different predators exhibit similar hunting behaviors. When a predator becomes more common, prey may lower their threshold for responding to all threats, applying the same defensive strategy regardless of the predator type. This generalization may lead to stronger and more frequent flight responses in areas where multiple predators coexist. As large carnivores continue to recolonize parts of Sweden, the interplay between natural and human-induced predation pressures may further shape moose behavioral adaptations.